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Biological and physical properties of bone block grafting biomaterials for alveolar ridge augmentation

March 22, 2017 / Categories: Digital Dentistry, Implant Dentistry

Monje, Alberto

Wang, Hom-Lay

Bone resorption of maxillary ridges is an unavoidable process that occurs after tooth extraction. Many treatment alternatives have been proposed to facilitate implant placement in these scenarios.
Drawbacks such as morbidity, cost and excessive resorption owing to the procedure have prompted clinicians to seek biomaterials as an alternative to autogenous bone. The objective of this article was to review the current state of the art by means of the biological and physical properties of biomaterials used for block grafting in atrophic maxillary ridges. Secondly, it was aimed herein at presenting the clinical and histological findings when using these biomaterials.

Introduction

After tooth extraction, bone remodeling that leads to bone resorption is a common phenomenon.
Ridge resorption has made grafting procedures popular in implant and restorative therapy. 1Carlsson GE, Bergman B, Hedegard B.Changes in contour of the maxillary alveolar process under immediate dentures. A longitudinal clinical and X-ray cephalometric study covering 5 years.
→ Acta Odontol Scand. 1967 Jun;25(1):45–75.
2Atwood DA, Coy WA. Clinical, cephalometric, and densitometric study of reduction of residual ridges.
→ J Prosthet Dent. 1971 Sep;26(3):280–95.
3Pietrokovski J, Massler M. Alveolar ridge resorption following tooth extraction.
→ J Prosthet Dent. 1967 Jan;17(1):21–7.
4Schropp L, Wenzel A, Kostopoulos L, Karring T. Bone healing and soft tissue contour changes following single-tooth extraction: a clinical and radiographic 12-month prospective study.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2003 Aug;23(4):313–23.

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These procedures aim at restoring width and height for proper 3-D implant placement.
Numerous treatment alternatives have been proposed (e.g., distraction osteogenesis and guided bone regeneration with particulated bone materials).5Hammerle CH, Jung RE, Feloutzis A. A systematic review of the survival of implants in bone sites augmented with barrier membranes (guided bone regeneration) in partially edentulous patients.
→ J Clin Periodontol. 2002;29 Suppl 3:226–31; discussion 232–3.
Nonetheless, for extensive or severely atrophic ridges, block grafting has been advocated to be the most predictable approach.6Tessier P, Kawamoto H, Matthews D, Posnick J, Raulo Y, Tulasne JF, Wolfe SA. Autogenous bone grafts and bone substitutes tools and techniques: I. A 20,000-case experience in maxillofacial and craniofacial surgery.
→ Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005 Oct;116(5 Suppl):6S–24S; discussion 92S–94S.
7Monje A, Monje F, Galindo-Moreno P, Montanero-Fernandez J, Suarez F, Wang HL. Microstructural and densiometric analysis of extra oral bone block grafts for maxillary horizontal bone augmentation: a comparison between calvarial bone and iliac crest.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2014 Jun;25(6):659–64. Epub 2013 Apr 28.

Autogenous bone has been regarded as the gold standard for bone reconstruction.8Albrektsson T, Johansson C. Osteoinduction, osteoconduction and osseointegration.
→ Eur Spine J. 2001 Oct;10 Suppl 2:S96–101.
This can be harvested from different locations based upon the extension of the atrophic area.9Albrektsson T, Johansson C. Osteoinduction, osteoconduction and osseointegration.
→ Eur Spine J. 2001 Oct;10 Suppl 2:S96–101.
While intraoral bone block grafts (mandibular ramus or mental symphysis) can be harvested with a less traumatic approach, the amount is often limited. However, extraoral bone block grafts (calvaria or iliac crest) fulfill the requirements in terms of quantity, but they increase the cost and lead to some sequelae for the donor site. Regardless of the harvesting location, autogenous block grafts might be further classified depending on their origin. For example, intramembranous grafts (mandibular ramus and calvaria bone) have less bone resorption and the process of bone remodeling or “creeping substitution” takes longer10Burchardt H. The biology of bone graft repair.
→ Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1983 Apr;(174):28–42.
compared with endochondral bone (iliac crest).11Zins JE, Whitaker LA. Membranous versus endochondral bone: implications for craniofacial reconstruction.
→ Plast Reconstr Surg. 1983 Dec;72(6):778–85.
Hence, it is important to take this into consideration when planning implant treatment so that it will not cause extensive bone remodeling that threatens the final adequate prosthetically driven implant position.12Wennerberg A, Albrektsson T. On implant surfaces: a review of current knowledge and opinions.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2010 Jan-Feb;25(1):63–74.
13Brånemark PI. Rehabilitation and osseointegration in clinical reality.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2003 Sep-Oct;18(5):770–1.

Indeed, autologous bone has osteogenic capacity; 8 in other words, bone can potentially grow in between the interface of the graft and the host bone. Nevertheless, as already mentioned, the drawbacks associated with this approach have encouraged clinicians to use alternatives, such as allogeneic or xenogeneic bone blocks.14Bauer TW, Smith ST. Bioactive materials in orthopaedic surgery: overview and regulatory considerations.
→ Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2002 Feb;(395):11–22.
15Bauer TW, Muschler GF. Bone graft materials. An overview of the basic science.
→ Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2000 Feb;(371):10–27.
These treatment modalities not only reduce the possibility of experiencing morbidity, but also shorten the treatment and, hence, increase patient acceptance and satisfaction. The mechanism of forming new mineralized tissue is mediated by the mesenchymal cells, which differentiate into osteoblasts that are coordinated by glycoproteins (bone morphogenetic proteins).16Glowacki J, Kaban LB, Murray JE, Folkman J, Mulliken JB. Application of the biological principle of induced osteogenesis for craniofacial defects.
→ Lancet. 1981 May 2;1(8227):959–62.
Hence, after an inflammatory process that ends in gradual substitution, the newly formed bone is obtained,17Köndell PA, Mattsson T, Astrand P. Immunological responses to maxillary on-lay allogeneic bone grafts.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 1996 Dec;7(4):373–7.
or in this case hard tissue capable of obtaining first implant stability and subsequently osseointegration.

In general, allogeneic and xenogeneic block grafts do not contain osteoprogenitor cells and, consequently, integration with the native bone might be arduous. Promising results have been shown in the literature with application of these block grafts for bone regeneration.18Araújo PP, Oliveira KP, Montenegro SC, Carreiro AF, Silva JS, Germano AR. Block allograft for reconstruction of alveolar bone ridge in implantology: a systematic review.
→ Implant Dent. 2013 Jun;22(3):304–8.
19Waasdorp J, Reynolds MA. Allogeneic bone onlay grafts for alveolar ridge augmentation: a systematic review.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2010 May-Jun;25(3):525–31.
Depending on their origin, they can be either from human (cadaver), known also as allografts, or from animal origin (equine and bovine), which are also called xenografts. Once harvested, the grafts must be preserved, and each manufacturing company has developed its own process that can potentially determine the properties of the respective biomaterial.

The objective of this article was to review the biological and physical properties of block grafting biomaterials available for bone regeneration in atrophic maxillary ridges. Furthermore, the aim was to present the human and animal clinical and histological findings of biomaterials used for maxillary reconstructions.

Materials and methods

Information sources

An electronic literature search was conducted by two independent reviewers (AM and HLW) of several databases, including MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and Cochrane Oral Health Group Trials Register databases, for articles written in English up to June 2016.

Screening process

(((((((Alveolar bone atrophy[MeSH Terms])
OR alveolar bone loss[MeSH Terms])
AND bone grafting[MeSH Terms])
OR allograft[MeSH Terms])
OR xenograft[MeSH Terms])
OR biomaterials[MeSH Terms])
AND block)
OR onlay
OR
((((((((”alveolar bone loss”[MeSH Terms] OR “alveolar bone loss”[MeSH Terms])
AND bone graft[Title/Abstract])
AND block[Title/Abstract])
OR onlay[Title/Abstract])
AND biomaterial[Title/Abstract])
OR allogeneic[Title/Abstract])
OR allograft[Title/Abstract])
OR xenogeneic[Title/Abstract])
OR xenograft[Title/Abstract] AND “humans”[MeSH Terms]

Additionally, a manual search of periodonticsand implantology-related journals, including the Journal of Dental Research, Journal of Clinical Periodontology, Journal of Periodontology, and International Journal of Periodontics and Restorative Dentistry, from January 2015 up to June 2016, was performed to ensure a thorough screening process. Furthermore, references of included articles were screened to check all available articles.

Biomaterials’ properties

“Biomaterial” refers, generally speaking, to material that has been developed to interact with the biological system, acting as a scaffold for replacement and repair of, in this case, lost bone. Firstly, a biomaterial must be biocompatible, which is defined as the capacity that the material has to elicit an appropriate biological response and, thus, not be detected as a foreign body by the host. In addition, it must have sufficient durability to carry out the task for which it was developed. Further, it must be chemically stable (neither toxic nor carcinogenic for the host).

For block grafts used in regeneration, an ideal biomaterial, from the cellular and mo- lecular standpoint, must have the following properties:

  • Its design enables osteogenic cells to reach the entire block by osteoconduction and osteoinduction in order to complete the turnover process. In order to permit osteoblastic growth and mineralized tissue production, the ideal size of the micropores should be within 180–600 μ.20Pamula E, Filová E, Bacáková L, Lisa V, Adamczyk D. Resorbable polymeric scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: the influence of their microstructure on the growth of human osteoblast-like MG 63 cells.
    → J Biomed Mater Res A. 2009 May;89(2):432–43.
    This is of crucial importance inasmuch as osteoblasts (15–50 μ) and stem cells (5–12 μ) have to proliferate guided through the pores.21Mellonig JT. Bone grafts in periodontal therapy.
    → N Y State Dent J. 1986;52:27–29.
    The biomaterial itself must be replaced by vital bone (newly formed bone). Therefore, the biomaterial’s degradation must be in accordance with the remodeling process.
  • The trabeculae-like structures that form the scaffold must leave enough space for the formation of new vessels by the endothelial cells that will supply of all the nutrients and osseous cells to the scaffold.

Therefore, as occurs in autogenous bone blocks, biomaterials undergo three steps: (1) colonization of host cells; (2) degradation of the biomaterial while turnover is occurring; and (3) maturation of the newly formed bone and integration with the recipient site’s bone (Fig. 1).

Figs. 1
Descriptive illustration of the onlay bone grafting procedure.
In order to be successful, the three elements must be achieved to ensure a proper creeping substitution process.

However, biomaterials in bone grafting must fulfill other properties besides biological ones. This will allow the material to interact with the host environment and, thus, increase the possibility of bone formation and long-term stability. These properties should include:

  • Mechanical properties: Among these properties are resistance, resilience, stiffness, fragility, tenacity, ductility and malleability. The result of the combination of these mechanical properties will determine the handling of the material more than its capacity as scaffold for bone regeneration.22Kurella A, Dahotre NB. Review paper: surface modification for bioimplants: the role of laser surface engineering.
    → J Biomater Appl. 2005 Jul;20(1):5–50.
    However, it is important to note that, generally, the stiffer the biomaterial is, the longer it lasts due to the more rigid element.
  • Surface phenomena: It is important to take into consideration the internal energy, surface tension, wettability, and adhesion and cohesion of the biomaterial to be used for bone regeneration. These properties are in part responsible for the aggregation and attachment of vital osteogenic cells in a nonvital structure (scaffold).23Kurella A, Dahotre NB. Review paper: surface modification for bioimplants: the role of laser surface engineering.
    → J Biomater Appl. 2005 Jul;20(1):5–50.
  • Physical properties: Three main properties are included within this group:
    • Thermals: thermal expansion, thermal contraction, thermal insulation, melting point and interval;
    • Electrics: electric conductivity, electrical resistivity and oral galvanism;
    • Optics: color and appearance.
  • Chemical properties: toxicity, chemical stability, half-life, flammability or enthalpy of formation among others.
  • Rheological properties: apparent viscosity, normal force coefficients, storage modulus, complex viscosity and complex functions of nonlinear viscoelasticity.

Vascularization

Biomaterials used in bone regeneration lack cells, proteins and vessels. In this manner, risk of disease transmission is minimized. Therefore, cells from the recipient site of the graft carry out the process of neoangiogenesis, an essential step for successful bone regeneration.24Wang HL, Boyapati L. “PASS” principles for predictable bone regeneration.
→ Implant Dent. 2006 Mar;15(1):8–17.
Neovascularization indeed is fundamental because it supplies the avascular scaffold with oxygen and the nutrients required for cell growth and differentiation.25King TW, Brey EM, Youssef AA, Johnston C, Patrick CW Jr. Quantification of vascular density using a semiautomated technique for immunostained specimens.
→ Anal Quant Cytol Histol. 2002 Feb;24(1):39–48.
Accordingly, newly formed bone and resorption of the block graft rely upon the neoangiogenesis process. Numerous growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), some subgroups of the transforming growth factor beta family (TGF-β), transcription factor to induce hypoxia (HIF), angiopoietin (Ang-1), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB), insulin-like derived growth factor (IGF-1, IGF-2) and neurotrophic growth factor (NGF) are involved in the process.26Madeddu P. Therapeutic angiogenesis and vasculogenesis for tissue regeneration.
→ Exp Physiol. 2005 May;90(3):315–26. Epub 2005 Mar 18.
Accordingly, VEGFs and their receptors are in charge of the molecular and cellular cascade inasmuch as they lead the development of the endothelial system by vasculogenesis, angiogenesis and the lymphatic net. Additionally, VEGFs play a meaningful role in skeletal growth and in bone repair and regeneration.27Zelzer E, McLean W, Ng YS, Fukai N, Reginato AM, Lovejoy S, D’Amore PA, Olsen BR. Skeletal defects in VEGF(120/120) mice reveal multiple roles for VEGF in skeletogenesis.
→ Development. 2002 Apr;129(8):1893–904.
Likewise, FGFs are in charge of promoting proliferation and differentiation of endothelial cells and fibroblasts. On the contrary, TGFs increase extracellular matrix development. HIFs mediate the effects of hypoxia on the cells. Ang-1 stabilizes the vessels. However, HGFs act on epithelial and endothelial cells for organ regeneration and wound healing. Commonly used as exogenous growth factors in bone regeneration, the PDGF family plays an important role in angiogenesis. IGFs in contrast have endocrine effects upon the host. Lastly, NGFs, also known as neurotrophins, maintain nerve cells within the horizontal newly formed bone.28Risau W, Flamme I. Vasculogenesis.
→ Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol.1995;11:73–91.
29Flamme I, Frolich T, Risau W. Molecular mechanisms of vasculogenesis and embryonic angiogenesis.
→ J Cell Physiol. 1997 Nov;173(2):206–10.

In bone regeneration using block grafts as scaffolds, new tendencies are arising, since, contrary to autogenous grafts, early neoangiogenesis is essential for biomaterial survival and integration. In consequence, techniques such as the delivery of stem cells and growth factors in order to accelerate the process have been closely examined recently with promising results.30Wallace S, Gellin R. Clinical evaluation of a cancellous block allograft for ridge augmentation and implant placement: a case report.
→ Implant Dent. 2008 Jun;17(2):151–8.
However, there is still a lack of results to make any conclusive statement in this regard.

Types of block graft biomaterials

1. Allogeneic block grafts

The use of allografts represents a fair alternative to autogenous block grafts, since the blocks are harvested from the same species as that of the recipient.
The first bone allografts were performed in late 19th century by a group of surgeons who reconstructed an infected humerus with a graft harvested from the tibia of the same patient.31De Boer HH. The history of bone grafts.
→ Clin Orthop Relat Res.1988 Jan;(226):292–8.

The establishment of the U.S. Navy Tissue Bank in 1990 was a significant influencing factor for the wide use of bone allografts. The use of allografts has continued to increase since then.32Leslie HW, Bottenfield S. Donation, banking, and transplantation of allograft tissues.
→ Nurs Clin North Am. 1989 Dec;24(4):891–905.

Properties

The properties of allograft material are directly related to its processing and its precedence.33Kao ST, Scott DD. A review of bone substitutes.
→ Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2007 Nov;19(4):513–21, vi.
Allogeneic block grafts may be prepared as fresh, frozen and freeze-dried. Nowadays, the vast majority of grafts are carefully screened, harvested, processed and distributed, and this is governed by the American Association of Tissue Banks. The risk of disease transmission is often minimized through the above processes. 34Khan SN, Cammisa FP Jr, Sandhu HS, Diwan AD, Girardi FP, Lane JM. The biology of bone grafting.
→ J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2005 Jan-Feb;13(1):77–86.
35Khan SN, Sandhu HS, Parvataneni HK, Girardi FP, Cammisa FP Jr. Bone graft substitutes in spine surgery.
→ Bull Hosp Jt Dis. 2000;59(1):5–10.
In addition, during graft preparation, the antigenic components are carefully removed to eliminate any potential host immune response.36Khan SN, Cammisa FP Jr, Sandhu HS, Diwan AD, Girardi FP, Lane JM. The biology of bone grafting.
→ J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2005 Jan-Feb;13(1):77–86.

Fresh or frozen allografts retain both osteoinductive and osteoconductive capacities, allowing a slightly faster bone turnover than that of freeze-dried allografts. However, the risks of disease transmission and host reactions are slightly increased,37Strong DM, Friedlaender GE, Tomford WW, Springfield DS, Shives TC, Burchardt H, Enneking WF, Mankin HJ. Immunologic responses in human recipients of osseous and osteochondral allografts.
→ Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1996 May;326:107–14.
whereas the immune response is reduced in freeze-dried allografts.38Strong DM, Friedlaender GE, Tomford WW, Springfield DS, Shives TC, Burchardt H, Enneking WF, Mankin HJ. Immunologic responses in human recipients of osseous and osteochondral allografts.
→ Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1996 May;326:107–14.
This is due to the elimination of the cells by embedding the graft in antibiotic wash twice for 1 h and then storing it at -70 °C to dry up to 5% of the water.39Mellonig JT. Autogenous and allogeneic bone grafts in periodontal therapy.
→ Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1992;3(4):333–52.
40Sanders JJ, Sepe WW, Bowers GM, Koch RW, Williams JE, Lekas JS, Mellonig JT, Pelleu GB Jr, Gambill V. Clinical evaluation of freeze-dried bone allografts in periodontal osseous defects. Part III. Composite freeze-dried bone allografts with and without autogenous bone grafts.
→ J Periodontol. 1983 Jan;54(1):1–8.
Another issue to bear in mind is that, because of the drying, mechanical properties are weakened. Hence, microfracture of the grafts might easily occur. Consequently, for this type of block allograft, rehydration is suggested prior to placement in order to regain some of the mechanical properties.41Giannoudis PV, Dinopoulos H, Tsiridis E. Bone substitutes: an update.
→ Injury. 2005 Nov;36 Suppl 3:S20–7.
Currently, Zimmer Biomet Dental (Carlsbad, Calif., U.S.) has patented its suitable preparation sequence (Fig. 2). This is the Tutoplast process, which includes cleaning and ultrasonic lipidization in acetone, an osmotic and later oxidative treatment, ending with dehydration in sequential acetone baths and gamma irradiation.42Kriegel RJ, Schaller C, Clusmann H. Cranioplasty for large skull defects with PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate) or Tutoplast processed autogenic bone grafts.
→ Zentralbl Neurochir. 2007 Nov;68(4):182–9. Epub 2007 Oct 26.
The result of this process is a greater preservation of the minerals and collagen matrix, leading to rapid bone turnover.43Pachence JM. Collagen-based devices for soft tissue repair.
→ J Biomed Mater Res. 1996 Spring;33(1):35–40.

Figs. 2
Scanning electron microscopy image of the Puros Block Allograft (Zimmer Biomet Dental) microarchitecture (75× magnification).(Courtesy of Zimmer Dental).

Clinical outcomes

Bone block allografts are a relatively novel alternative to autogenous grafts for horizontal and/or vertical bone augmentation of the atrophic maxilla (Table 1). In 1999, the first case of using an allogeneic block bone graft for bone regeneration was reported. In that case, dental implants for oral rehabilitation were successfully placed three months after the grafting procedure.44Waasdorp J, Reynolds MA. Allogeneic bone onlay grafts for alveolar ridge augmentation: a systematic review.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2010 May-Jun;25(3):525–31.
Since then, multiple prospective human clinical trials have been published demonstrating proof of principle for this human allograft block usage.45Acocella A, Bertolai R, Ellis E 3rd, Nissan J, Sacco R. Maxillary alveolar ridge reconstruction with monocortical fresh-frozen bone blocks: a clinical, histological and histomorphometric study.
→ J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2012 Sep;40(6):525–33. Epub 2011 Nov 9.
46Barone A, Varanini P, Orlando B, Tonelli P, Covani U. Deep-frozen allogeneic onlay bone grafts for reconstruction of atrophic maxillary alveolar ridges: a preliminary study.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009 Jun;67(6):1300–6.
47Chaushu G, Mardinger O, Peleg M, Ghelfan O, Nissan J. Analysis of complications following augmentation with cancellous block allografts.
→ J Periodontol. 2010 Dec;81(12):1759–64. Epub 2010 Aug 3.
48Contar CM, Sarot JR, da Costa MB, Bordini J, de Lima AA, Alanis LR, Trevilatto PC, Machado MÂ. Fresh-frozen bone allografts in maxillary ridge augmentation: histologic analysis.
→ J Oral Implantol. 2011 Apr;37(2):223–31. Epub 2010 Jun 14.
49Contar CM, Sarot JR, Bordini J Jr, Galvao GH, Nicolau GV, Machado MA. Maxillary ridge augmentation with fresh-frozen bone allografts.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009 Jun;67(6):1280–5.
50Deluiz D, Oliveira LS, Pires FR, Tinoco EM. Time-dependent changes in fresh-frozen bone block grafts: tomographic, histologic, and histomorphometric findings.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2015 Apr;17(2):296–306. Epub 2013 Jul 9.
51Lumetti S, Consolo U, Galli C, Multinu A, Piersanti L, Bellini P, Manfredi E, Corinaldesi G, Zaffe D, Macaluso GM, Marchetti C. Fresh-frozen bone blocks for horizontal ridge augmentation in the upper maxilla: 6-month outcomes of a randomized controlled trial.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2014 Feb;16(1):116–23. Epub 2012 Apr 24.
52Lyford RH, Mills MP, Knapp CI, Scheyer ET, Mellonig JT. Clinical evaluation of freeze-dried block allografts for alveolar ridge augmentation: a case series.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2003 Oct;23(5):417–25.
53Macedo LG, Mazzucchelli-Cosmo LA, Macedo NL, Monteiro AS, Sendyk WR. Fresh-frozen human bone allograft in vertical ridge augmentation: clinical and tomographic evaluation of bone formation and resorption.
→ Cell Tissue Bank. 2012 Dec;13(4):577–86. Epub 2011 Aug 3.
54Nissan J, Mardinger O, Calderon S, Romanos GE, Chaushu G. Cancellous bone block allografts for the augmentation of the anterior atrophic maxilla.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2011 Jun;13(2):104–11.
55Nissan J, Romanos GE, Mardinger O, Chaushu G. Immediate nonfunctional loading of single-tooth implants in the anterior maxilla following augmentation with freeze-dried cancellous block allograft: a case series.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2008 Jul-Aug;23(4):709–16.
56Nissan J, Gross O, Mardinger O, Ghelfan O, Sacco R, Chaushu G. Post-traumatic implant-supported restoration of the anterior maxillary teeth using cancellous bone block allografts.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011 Dec;69(12):e513–8. Epub 2011 Oct 8.
57Novell J, Novell-Costa F, Ivorra C, Farinas O, Munilla A, Martinez C. Five-year results of implants inserted into freeze-dried block allografts.
→ Implant Dent. 2012 Apr;21(2):129–35.
58Peleg M, Sawatari Y, Marx RN, Santoro J, Cohen J, Bejarano P, Malinin T. Use of corticocancellous allogeneic bone blocks for augmentation of alveolar bone defects.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2010 Jan-Feb;25(1):153–62.
59Spin-Neto R, Stavropoulos A, Dias Pereira LA, Marcantonio E Jr, Wenzel A. Fate of autologous and fresh-frozen allogeneic block bone grafts used for ridge augmentation. A CBCT-based analysis.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2013 Feb;24(2):167–73. Epub 2011 Oct 21.
60Spin-Neto R, Landazuri Del Barrio RA, Pereira LA, Marcantonio RA, Marcantonio E, Marcantonio E Jr. Clinical similarities and histological diversity comparing fresh frozen onlay bone blocks allografts and autografts in human maxillary reconstruction.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2013 Aug;15(4):490–7. Epub 2011 Aug 11.
61Wallace S, Gellin R. Clinical evaluation of freeze-dried cancellous block allografts for ridge augmentation and implant placement in the maxilla.
→ Implant Dent. 2010 Aug;19(4):272–9.

table-1

Table 1

From our clinical experience and others’, when the human allograft is exposed to the oral cavity, it often leads to graft failure.62Chaushu G, Mardinger O, Peleg M, Ghelfan O, Nissan J. Analysis of complications following augmentation with cancellous block allografts.
→ J Periodontol. 2010 Dec;81(12):1759–64. Epub 2010 Aug 3.
63Monje A, Pikos MA, Chan HL, Suarez F, Gargallo-Albiol J, Hernández-Alfaro F, Galindo-Moreno P, Wang HL. On the feasibility of utilizing allogeneic bone blocks for atrophic maxillary augmentation.
→ Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:814578. Epub 2014 Sep 11.
Moreover, it has much higher failure rate in the mandible than in the maxilla owing to difficulty in flap advancement and a thinner soft-tissue biotype.64Chaushu G, Manor Y, Shoshani Y, Taicher S. Risk factors contributing to symptomatic plate removal in maxillofacial trauma patients.
→ Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000 Feb;105(2):521–5.
Failure of a block graft generally occurs in the early stages of graft healing.65Barone A, Varanini P, Orlando B, Tonelli P, Covani U. Deep-frozen allogeneic onlay bone grafts for reconstruction of atrophic maxillary alveolar ridges: a preliminary study.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009 Jun;67(6):1300–6.
66Deluiz D, Oliveira LS, Pires FR, Tinoco EM. Time-dependent changes in fresh-frozen bone block grafts: tomographic, histologic, and histomorphometric findings.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2015 Apr;17(2):296–306. Epub 2013 Jul 9.
67Novell J, Novell-Costa F, Ivorra C, Farinas O, Munilla A, Martinez C. Five-year results of implants inserted into freeze-dried block allografts.
→ Implant Dent. 2012 Apr;21(2):129–35.
68Spin-Neto R, Landazuri Del Barrio RA, Pereira LA, Marcantonio RA, Marcantonio E, Marcantonio E Jr. Clinical similarities and histological diversity comparing fresh frozen onlay bone blocks allografts and autografts in human maxillary reconstruction.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2013 Aug;15(4):490–7. Epub 2011 Aug 11.
In addition, bone graft resorption occurs during healing, which is the same as with autogenous grafts. However, greater bone loss occurs at six months after placement compared with autogenous bone harvested from the mandibular ramus (52.00 ± 25.87% vs. 25.00 ± 12.73%, respectively).69Lumetti S, Consolo U, Galli C, Multinu A, Piersanti L, Bellini P, Manfredi E, Corinaldesi G, Zaffe D, Macaluso GM, Marchetti C. Fresh-frozen bone blocks for horizontal ridge augmentation in the upper maxilla: 6-month outcomes of a randomized controlled trial.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2014 Feb;16(1):116–23. Epub 2012 Apr 24.
A recent systematic review found promising results on the use of allogeneic bone grafts for horizontal bone augmentation in maxillae.70Flamme I, Fröhlich T, von Reutern M, Kappel A, Damert A, Risau W. HRF, a putative basic helix-loop-helix-PAS-domain transcription factor is closely related to hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha and developmentally expressed in blood vessels.
→ Mech Dev. 1997 Apr;63(1):51–60.
It was shown that not only high graft and implant survival rates had been achieved (98.0% and 96.9%, respectively), but also that a weighed mean of 4.79 mm of horizontal bone had been gained over a mean follow-up period of 23.9 months.

Histological and histomorphometric outcomes

Indeed, allogeneic block grafts do not behave like autogenous bone from the cellular standpoint because of the lack of osteogenic potential; notwithstanding, respecting a proper healing time (more than six months), this biomaterial results in similar clinical healing to that of native bone71Acocella A, Bertolai R, Ellis E 3rd, Nissan J, Sacco R. Maxillary alveolar ridge reconstruction with monocortical fresh-frozen bone blocks: a clinical, histological and histomorphometric study.
→ J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2012 Sep;40(6):525–33. Epub 2011 Nov 9.
72Barone A, Varanini P, Orlando B, Tonelli P, Covani U. Deep-frozen allogeneic onlay bone grafts for reconstruction of atrophic maxillary alveolar ridges: a preliminary study.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009 Jun;67(6):1300–6.
73Chaushu G, Mardinger O, Peleg M, Ghelfan O, Nissan J. Analysis of complications following augmentation with cancellous block allografts.
→ J Periodontol. 2010 Dec;81(12):1759–64. Epub 2010 Aug 3.
74Contar CM, Sarot JR, da Costa MB, Bordini J, de Lima AA, Alanis LR, Trevilatto PC, Machado MÂ. Fresh-frozen bone allografts in maxillary ridge augmentation: histologic analysis.
→ J Oral Implantol. 2011 Apr;37(2):223–31. Epub 2010 Jun 14.
75Contar CM, Sarot JR, Bordini J Jr, Galvao GH, Nicolau GV, Machado MA. Maxillary ridge augmentation with fresh-frozen bone allografts.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009 Jun;67(6):1280–5.
76Deluiz D, Oliveira LS, Pires FR, Tinoco EM. Time-dependent changes in fresh-frozen bone block grafts: tomographic, histologic, and histomorphometric findings.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2015 Apr;17(2):296–306. Epub 2013 Jul 9.
77Lumetti S, Consolo U, Galli C, Multinu A, Piersanti L, Bellini P, Manfredi E, Corinaldesi G, Zaffe D, Macaluso GM, Marchetti C. Fresh-frozen bone blocks for horizontal ridge augmentation in the upper maxilla: 6-month outcomes of a randomized controlled trial.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2014 Feb;16(1):116–23. Epub 2012 Apr 24.
78Lyford RH, Mills MP, Knapp CI, Scheyer ET, Mellonig JT. Clinical evaluation of freeze-dried block allografts for alveolar ridge augmentation: a case series.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2003 Oct;23(5):417–25.
79Macedo LG, Mazzucchelli-Cosmo LA, Macedo NL, Monteiro AS, Sendyk WR. Fresh-frozen human bone allograft in vertical ridge augmentation: clinical and tomographic evaluation of bone formation and resorption.
→ Cell Tissue Bank. 2012 Dec;13(4):577–86. Epub 2011 Aug 3.
80Nissan J, Mardinger O, Calderon S, Romanos GE, Chaushu G. Cancellous bone block allografts for the augmentation of the anterior atrophic maxilla.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2011 Jun;13(2):104–11.
81Nissan J, Romanos GE, Mardinger O, Chaushu G. Immediate nonfunctional loading of single-tooth implants in the anterior maxilla following augmentation with freeze-dried cancellous block allograft: a case series.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2008 Jul-Aug;23(4):709–16.
82Nissan J, Gross O, Mardinger O, Ghelfan O, Sacco R, Chaushu G. Post-traumatic implant-supported restoration of the anterior maxillary teeth using cancellous bone block allografts.
→ J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011 Dec;69(12):e513–8. Epub 2011 Oct 8.
83Novell J, Novell-Costa F, Ivorra C, Farinas O, Munilla A, Martinez C. Five-year results of implants inserted into freeze-dried block allografts.
→ Implant Dent. 2012 Apr;21(2):129–35.
84Peleg M, Sawatari Y, Marx RN, Santoro J, Cohen J, Bejarano P, Malinin T. Use of corticocancellous allogeneic bone blocks for augmentation of alveolar bone defects.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2010 Jan-Feb;25(1):153–62.
85Spin-Neto R, Stavropoulos A, Dias Pereira LA, Marcantonio E Jr, Wenzel A. Fate of autologous and fresh-frozen allogeneic block bone grafts used for ridge augmentation. A CBCT-based analysis.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2013 Feb;24(2):167–73. Epub 2011 Oct 21.
86Spin-Neto R, Landazuri Del Barrio RA, Pereira LA, Marcantonio RA, Marcantonio E, Marcantonio E Jr. Clinical similarities and histological diversity comparing fresh frozen onlay bone blocks allografts and autografts in human maxillary reconstruction.
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87Wallace S, Gellin R. Clinical evaluation of freeze-dried cancellous block allografts for ridge augmentation and implant placement in the maxilla.
→ Implant Dent. 2010 Aug;19(4):272–9.
(Figs. 3a–c & 4). Acocella et al. showed that, after nine months, a high number of empty osteocyte lacunae were still present and that more fibrous tissue was present than in the samples taken previously. 88 Acocella A, Bertolai R, Ellis E 3rd, Nissan J, Sacco R. Maxillary alveolar ridge reconstruction with monocortical fresh-frozen bone blocks: a clinical, histological and histomorphometric study.
→ J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2012 Sep;40(6):525–33. Epub 2011 Nov 9.
Additionally, newly formed bone (61.96 ± 11.77%) was surrounded by nonvital bone with empty osteocyte lacunae. At the same time after healing, Contar et al. demonstrated a lamellar arrangement around Haversian canals interspersed with osteocytes in lacunae.89Contar CM, Sarot JR, da Costa MB, Bordini J, de Lima AA, Alanis LR, Trevilatto PC, Machado MÂ. Fresh-frozen bone allografts in maxillary ridge augmentation: histologic analysis.
→ J Oral Implantol. 2011 Apr;37(2):223–31. Epub 2010 Jun 14.
They also observed that the central portions of the grafts showed osteocytes with a higher number of empty lacunae.

Figs. 3a-c
Histological samples of Puros Block Allograft six months after a regenerative procedure of the atrophic maxillae (100× magnification [a] and 400× magnification [b & c]).

Figs. 4
Histological sample of J-Block Puros Allograft six months after a regenerative procedure for horizontal augmentation in atrophic maxillae. Note the high amount of newly formed bone present, while the percentage of remaining material is decreased.

When histological results are compared between groups (allogeneic vs. autogenous), behavioral dissimilarities are displayed. Lumetti et al. showed that, after six months of healing, osteocyte lacunae were mostly empty for the allogeneic block graft group90Lumetti S, Consolo U, Galli C, Multinu A, Piersanti L, Bellini P, Manfredi E, Corinaldesi G, Zaffe D, Macaluso GM, Marchetti C. Fresh-frozen bone blocks for horizontal ridge augmentation in the upper maxilla: 6-month outcomes of a randomized controlled trial.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2014 Feb;16(1):116–23. Epub 2012 Apr 24.
and that newly formed bone contained viable osteocytes. In these samples, bone-forming osteoblasts were detected. Dense connective tissue with the presence of inflammatory cells and eroded areas were also reported. Minimal differences were shown for the autogenous block graft group, in which no connective tissue was found and the presence of inflammatory cells was low. However, Spin-Neto et al. found major differences between groups.91Spin-Neto R, Landazuri Del Barrio RA, Pereira LA, Marcantonio RA, Marcantonio E, Marcantonio E Jr. Clinical similarities and histological diversity comparing fresh frozen onlay bone blocks allografts and autografts in human maxillary reconstruction.
→ Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2013 Aug;15(4):490–7. Epub 2011 Aug 11.
The following histological characteristics were found to be associated with allogeneic bone block grafts: (a) large segments of necrotic bone with empty osteocyte lacunae and little osteoclastic activity; (b) blood vessels invading the Haversian canals of the material no direct contact was found between remodeled and grafted bone; and (c) some osteoclastic activity surrounded by connective tissue with no presence of inflammatory cells by newly formed bone failed to invade the graft. On the contrary, autogenous block grafts presented small areas of necrotic bone with a higher number of osteocytes and a smoother junction between the graft and host bed. Therefore, from the cellular standpoint, allogeneic block grafts in the early stages of healing behave in a different manner to autogenous block grafts. However, the long-term outcome and differences remain to be determined.

2. Xenogeneic block grafts

Xenografts, which are derived from a genetically different species than the host, represent another potential alternative to autogenous block grafts for bone augmentation. Similar to human allografts, the lack of osteogenic capacity makes them less predictable in terms of graft incorporation into host bone. In addition, lack of human cells turns xenografts into scaffolds with no osteoinductive potential. Despite its novel applicability as block grafts for augmenting severely atrophied bone, this type of biomaterial has been widely used as particulate bone graft, showing excellent outcomes by means of space maintenance.92Aghaloo TL, Moy PK. Which hard tissue augmentation techniques are the most successful in furnishing bony support for implant placement?
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2007;22 Suppl:49–70.
93Araújo MG, Carmagnola D, Berglundh T, Thilander B, Lindhe J. Orthodontic movement in bone defects augmented with Bio-Oss. An experimental study in dogs.
→ J Clin Periodontol. 2001 Jan;28(1):73–80.
94Araújo MG, Lindhe J. Ridge preservation with the use of Bio-Oss collagen: A 6-month study in the dog.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2009 May;20(5):433–40.
Thus far, there is a scarcity of literature regarding this biomaterial for onlay grafts, and xenogeneic block grafts have been used more commonly as inlay grafts. As mentioned above, vascularity for this biomaterial is even more critical for success and, consequently, a three-wall defect (as displayed by host bone for inlay grafts) often makes this approach more reliable. However, an advantage of using xenogeneic biomaterial is that, owing to its slow rate of resorption, space is better maintained over the long term (Fig. 5).95Felice P, Marchetti C, Iezzi G, Piattelli A, Worthington H, Pellegrino G, Esposito M. Vertical ridge augmentation of the atrophic posterior mandible with interpositional bloc grafts: bone from the iliac crest vs. bovine anorganic bone. Clinical and histological results up to one year after loading from a randomized-controlled clinical trial.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2009 Dec;20(12):1386–93. Epub 2009 Aug 4.
96Simion M, Fontana F, Rasperini G, Maiorana C. Vertical ridge augmentation by expandedpolytetrafluoroethylene membrane and a combination of intraoral autogenous bone graft and deproteinized anorganic bovine bone (Bio Oss).
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2007 Oct;18(5):620–9.

Figs. 5
image of pore morphology of cancellous bovine bone (50× magnification) by Dr. Michael Bufler. (Courtesy of Geistlich Pharma, 2014)

Currently, two types of xenografts are available as blocks for bone augmentation: bovine and equine.
While deproteinized bovine bone relies on its acceptability by clinicians, equine bone has shown to be less fragile to fracture.97Felice P, Piana L, Checchi L, Corvino V, Nannmark U, Piattelli M. Vertical ridge augmentation of an atrophic posterior mandible with an inlay technique and cancellous equine bone block: a case report.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2013 Mar-Apr;33(2):159–66.
However, as mentioned, more studies are needed to verify the viability of this type of biomaterial in comparison to autogenous or allogeneic block grafts.

Properties

In contrast to human-derived bone, xenogeneic grafts do not have osteoinductive potential. Therefore, they are used only as scaffolds for space maintenance and cell migration guidance. Geistlich Bio-Oss (Geistlich Pharma, Wolhusen, Switzerland), a bovine-derived biomaterial, is the most widely used xenogeneic graft. This biomaterial is claimed to have all organic material removed, so is nonantigenic. A modified Geistlich Bio-Oss block that contains more collagen components for improving its manageability has also been introduced.98Fontana F, Rocchietta I, Dellavia C, Nevins M, Simion M. Biocompatibility and manageability of a new fixable bone graft for the treatment of localized bone defects: preliminary study in a dog model.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2008 Dec;28(6):601–7.
Equine bone blocks have recently been introduced and have shown to provide an improved scaffold for cases of severe atrophy owing to this bone’s natural trabecular structure.99Schwarz F, Ferrari D, Balic E, Buser D, Becker J, Sager M. Lateral ridge augmentation using equine- and bovine-derived cancellous bone blocks: a feasibility study in dogs.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2010 Sep;21(9):904–12. Epub 2010 May 9.

Xenogeneic biomaterials, albeit not posing osteoinductive potential, are claimed to serve as slow-resorption scaffolds capable of promoting bone formation.100Botticelli D, Berglundh T, Lindhe J. The influence of a biomaterial on the closure of a marginal hard tissue defect adjacent to implants. An experimental study in the dog.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2004 Jun;15(3):285–92.
101Carmagnola D, Adriaens P, Berglundh T. Healing of human extraction sockets filled with Bio-Oss.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2003 Apr;14(2):137–43.
Nonetheless, more studies on this material are still needed to better understand its overall properties and long-term results.

Clinical outcomes

As mentioned before, studies on xenogeneic block grafts are limited.102Albrektsson T, Johansson C. Osteoinduction, osteoconduction and osseointegration.
→ Eur Spine J. 2001 Oct;10 Suppl 2:S96–101.
At this point, only a few in vivo studies have been carried out on this biomaterial. 103Fontana F, Rocchietta I, Dellavia C, Nevins M, Simion M. Biocompatibility and manageability of a new fixable bone graft for the treatment of localized bone defects: preliminary study in a dog model.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2008 Dec;28(6):601–7.
104Schwarz F, Ferrari D, Balic E, Buser D, Becker J, Sager M. Lateral ridge augmentation using equine- and bovine-derived cancellous bone blocks: a feasibility study in dogs.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2010 Sep;21(9):904–12. Epub 2010 May 9.
105Andia I, Maffulli N. Platelet-rich plasma for muscle injury and tendinopathy.
→ Sports Med Arthrosc. 2013 Dec;21(4):191–8.
106Araújo MG, Sonohara M, Hayacibara R, Cardaropoli G, Lindhe J. Lateral ridge augmentation by the use of grafts comprised of autologous bone or a biomaterial. An experiment in the dog.
→ J Clin Periodontol. 2002 Dec;29(12):1122–31.
107Steigmann M. A bovine-bone mineral block for the treatment of severe ridge deficiencies in the anterior region: a clinical case report.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2008 Jan-Feb;23(1):123–8.
The xenogeneic block graft has been advocated for bone augmentation. Steigmann presented the first human case report that used this biomaterial for horizontal bone augmentation in the maxillary anterior region.85 Li et al. successfully used Geistlich Bio-Oss blocks for horizontal bone augmentation via a subperiosteal tunneling approach.108Andia I, Maffulli N. Platelet-rich plasma for muscle injury and tendinopathy.
→ Sports Med Arthrosc. 2013 Dec;21(4):191–8.
This might represent an alternative approach for placing this specific biomaterial owing to the success rate it achieved. Despite these preliminary results, we still need more evidence to support the use of xenogeneic materials for onlay block grafting.

Regarding xenogeneic graft resorption, Araújo et al. in a dog study showed that the Geistlich Bio-Oss block graft is capable of retaining its dimension with moderate amounts of new bone formed at the base of the graft, while autogenous block grafts undergo 30% and 50% graft resorption. 109Araújo MG, Sonohara M, Hayacibara R, Cardaropoli G, Lindhe J. Lateral ridge augmentation by the use of grafts comprised of autologous bone or a biomaterial. An experiment in the dog.
→ J Clin Periodontol. 2002 Dec;29(12):1122–31.
Likewise, De Santis et al. demonstrated superior volumetric stability of deproteinized bovine bone mineral compared with autogenous block grafts harvested from the mandibular ramus in a dog study (0.2 mm vs. 0.9 mm of horizontal resorption, respectively).110De Santis E, Lang NP, Favero G, Beolchini M, Morelli F, Botticelli D. Healing at mandibular block-grafted sites. An experimental study in dogs.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2015 May;26(5):516–22. Epub 2014 Jun 12.

Histological and histomorphometric outcomes

Animal studies have shown that both bovine Geistlich Bio-Oss and equine eHac (Geistlich Pharma) blocks demonstrated similar histological results.
In the early stages of healing, the grafts were surrounded by fibrovascular connective tissue with no signs of necrosis, osteolysis or tissue degeneration.111Fontana F, Rocchietta I, Dellavia C, Nevins M, Simion M. Biocompatibility and manageability of a new fixable bone graft for the treatment of localized bone defects: preliminary study in a dog model.
→ Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2008 Dec;28(6):601–7.

In contrast, Schwarz et al. showed that, after 12 weeks of healing, bovine bone had no signs of degradation, while equine bone presented with an increase in osteoclasts and multinucleate giant cells.112Schwarz F, Ferrari D, Balic E, Buser D, Becker J, Sager M. Lateral ridge augmentation using equine- and bovine-derived cancellous bone blocks: a feasibility study in dogs.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2010 Sep;21(9):904–12. Epub 2010 May 9.
Additionally, it was shown that the amount and extent of bone ingrowth was higher for equine bone blocks, although this was not of statistical significance. Moreover, Araújo et al. evidenced the lesser osteogenic capacity of xenogeneic blocks, compared with autogenous grafts, by means of mineralized tissue (47.5 ± 5.0% vs. 23.3 ± 3.0%, respectively).113Araújo PP, Oliveira KP, Montenegro SC, Carreiro AF, Silva JS, Germano AR. Block allograft for reconstruction of alveolar bone ridge in implantology: a systematic review.
→ Implant Dent. 2013 Jun;22(3):304–8.
Similarly, findings by De Santis et al. illustrated the poor incorporation of the block graft into the pristine bone for horizontal ridge augmentation, demonstrating that, while 77% of the autogenous bone presented with vital mineralization, only 5.9% of the deproteinized bovine bone could be identified as new bone formation.114De Santis E, Lang NP, Favero G, Beolchini M, Morelli F, Botticelli D. Healing at mandibular block-grafted sites. An experimental study in dogs.
→ Clin Oral Implants Res. 2015 May;26(5):516–22. Epub 2014 Jun 12.
Therefore, it depends upon the clinician’s judgment regarding whether it is preferable to maintain the space or improve predictability by ensuring faster bone turnover.

Future directions

In order to facilitate bone graft adaptation, speed up the surgical procedure and limit any potential graft mobility or dead space, prefabrication of graft scaffolds using advanced computed tomography is the next wave of bone regeneration and repair.115Hollister SJ, Murphy WL. Scaffold translation: barriers between concept and clinic.
→ Tissue Eng Part B Rev. 2011 Dec;17(6):459–74. Epub 2011 Sep 21.
116Pilipchuk SP, Plonka AB, Monje A, Taut AD, Lanis A, Kang B, Giannobile WV. Tissue engineering for bone regeneration and osseointegration in the oral cavity.
→ Dent Mater. 2015 Apr;31(4):317–38. Epub 2015 Feb 18.
The idea of these scaffolds for bone regeneration is based upon their ability not only to maintain space, but also to create a 3-D graft structure that mimics the body’s own extracellular matrix into which cells attach, migrate and proliferate.117Billstrom GH, Blom AW, Larsson S, Beswick AD. Application of scaffolds for bone regeneration strategies: current trends and future directions.
→ Injury. 2013 Jan;44 Suppl 1:S28–33.
118Yannas IV. Synthesis of tissues and organs.
→ Chembiochem. 2004 Jan 3;5(1):26–39.
The porosity in such a scaffold biomaterial is important because it allows the transport of nutrients and facilitates tissue ingrowth. Hollister et al. proposed that the ideal scaffold should possess the following four properties: form, function, fixation and formation.119Hollister SJ, Murphy WL. Scaffold translation: barriers between concept and clinic.
→ Tissue Eng Part B Rev. 2011 Dec;17(6):459–74. Epub 2011 Sep 21.

Wagoner Johnson and Herschler further pointed out that scaffolds should possess biocompatibility, conductivity, bioactivity, osteoinductive and interconnected porosity.120Wagoner Johnson AJ, Herschler BA. A review of the mechanical behavior of CaP and CaP/ polymer composites for applications in bone replacement and repair.
→ Acta Biomater. 2011 Jan;7(1):16–30. Epub 2010 Jul 21.
Hence, synthetic scaffolds are currently being studied in animal models and in vitro.121Rosa V. What and where are the stem cells for dentistry?
→ Singapore Dent J. 2013 Dec;34(1):13–8.
122Iwata T, Yamato M, Ishikawa I, Ando T, Okano T. Tissue engineering in periodontal tissue.
→ Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2014 Jan;297(1):16–25. Epub 2013 Dec 2.
123Jiang ZQ, Liu HY, Zhang LP, Wu ZQ, Shang DZ. Repair of calvarial defects in rabbits with platelet-rich plasma as the scaffold for carrying bone marrow stromal cells.
→ Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2012 Mar;113(3):327–33.
124Khojasteh A, Behnia H, Hosseini FS, Dehghan MM, Abbasnia P, Abbas FM. The effect of PCL-TCP scaffold loaded with mesenchymal stem cells on vertical bone augmentation in dog mandible: a preliminary report.
→ J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2013 Jul;101(5):848–54. Epub 2013 Jan 29.
125Kim S, Jung UW, Lee YK, Choi SH. Effects of biphasic calcium phosphate bone substitute on circumferential bone defects around dental implants in dogs.
→ Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2011 Mar-Apr;26(2):265–73.
126Nevins ML, Reynolds MA. Tissue engineering with recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor BB for implant site development.
→ Compend Contin Educ Dent. 2011 Mar;32(2):18, 20–7; quiz 28, 40.
The application of gene therapy (mesenchymal stem cells or human-derived growth factors) via prefabricated scaffolds is the focus of much research at present because growth factors can be used to accelerate the wound-healing process and to promote mesenchymal stem cell migration and maturation.

Conclusion

Allogeneic and xenogeneic bone block grafts represent promising alternatives to autogenous bone for ridge augmentation. Nonetheless, the evidence supporting the use of xenogeneic block grafts remains minimal; hence, more long-term human studies are needed to validate their effectiveness. In addition, using prefabricated scaffolds impregnated with growth factors provides an interesting field to be further explored.

Competing interests

The authors do not have any financial interests, either directly or indirectly, in the products or information listed in the paper.

Acknowledgments

This paper was partially supported by the University of Michigan’s Periodontal Graduate Student Research Fund. In addition, we would like to thank Mr. Hai Bo Wen (Director of Research, Zimmer Biomet Dental), Ms. Vanesa Álvaro (Scientific Marketing Manager, Inibsal Dental) and Dr. Varvara Mitropoulos (Project Manager Clinical Science, Geistlich Pharma) for providing the scanning electron microscopy images. Lastly, we would like to thank Dr. Francisco O’Valle (Department of Pathology, School of Medicine and Institute of Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain) for the histological analysis shown in Figure 4.

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